The Art of Controversy
Peter Yaacoub •
Translator’s Preface
References
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 – 1860)
German philosopher who developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of German idealism.
Berlin State Library
Universal library in Berlin, among the largest libraries in Europe, and one of the most important academic research libraries in the German-speaking world.
Eduard Grisebach (1813 – 1879)
German diplomat, writer, literary scholar and bibliophile.
Julius Frauenstädt (1845 – 1906)
German philosopher and editor, primary editor and interpreter of Schopenhauer’s philosophy.
Parerga and Paralipomena
Appendices and Omissions, collection of philosophical reflections by Arthur Schopenhauer published in 1851.
The Art of Controversy
Acidulous, sarcastic treatise written by the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer who examines a total of thirty-eight methods of defeating one’s opponent in a debate.
Thomas Bailey Saunders (1860 – 1928)
British barrister, translator of Schopenhauer and Harnack.
Vocabulary
Parergon = A piece of work supplementary to or a by-product of a larger work.
Preliminary: Logic and Dialectic
My adversary may refute the proof, and thus appear to have refuted the assertion.
References
Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE)
Ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, student of Plato, and teacher of Alexander the Great, whose works cover a vast range of subjects including logic, metaphysics, and ethics.
Cicero (106 – 43 BCE)
Roman statesman, orator, and writer, known for his contributions to rhetoric and philosophy.
Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 BCE)
Ancient Greek philosopher known for his atomic theory of the universe.
Kant (1724 – 1804)
German philosopher known for his work in epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics, including his “Critique of Pure Reason.”
Laurentius Valla (1407 – 1457)
Italian humanist, scholar, and critic known for his works on classical texts and his critique of the Donation of Constantine.
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469 – 1527)
Italian Renaissance political philosopher known for “The Prince,” a treatise on political power and leadership.
Omer Talon (c. 1500 – 1562)
French philosopher and scholar known for his works on logic and dialectic.
Phaedrus
Dialogue by Plato focusing on rhetoric and love, part of his series of dialogues.
Plato (c. 427 – 348 BCE)
Ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, and teacher of Aristotle, who founded the Academy in Athens and wrote philosophical dialogues that have had a profound impact on Western thought.
Pontius Pilate (c. 26 – 36 CE)
Roman governor of Judea known for presiding over the trial of Jesus Christ.
Petrus Ramus (1515 – 1572)
French philosopher and scholar known for his critiques of Aristotelian logic and his own system of rhetoric and dialectic.
Republic bk. vii
Book VII of Plato’s “Republic,” which includes the famous Allegory of the Cave.
Sophistical Refutations
Work by Aristotle addressing sophistic arguments and fallacies.
Sophistical Refutations
Aristotle’s work addressing and refuting sophistical arguments.
Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BCE)
Ancient Greek philosopher and successor to Aristotle, known for his works on botany and ethics.
Quintilian (c. 35 – 100 CE)
Roman educator and rhetorician, known for his work “Institutio Oratoria” on the education of the orator.
Vocabulary
A priori = Relating to or denoting reasoning or knowledge which proceeds from theoretical deduction rather than from observation or experience.
A posteriori = Relating to or denoting reasoning or knowledge which proceeds from observations or experiences to the deduction of probable causes.
Apodeictic = Clearly established or beyond dispute.
Base = Without moral principles, ignoble.
Controversial Dialectic, Eristical Dialectic = “The branch of knowledge which treats of the obstinacy natural to man,” “the art of disputing, and of disputing in such a way as to hold one’s own, whether one is in the right or the wrong.”
Cunning = Having or showing skill in achieving one’s ends by deceit or evasion.
Dialectic:
- In Greek, dialegesthai, “to converse.”
- By Plato, “regular employment of the reason, and skill in the practice of it.”
- By Kant, “the art of sophistical controversy.”
- By Schopenhauer, “the art of disputation,” of purely a posteriori character.
- By Aristotle, “the method of arriving at conclusions that are accepted or pass current as true.”
- Concerned with the “contents or matter” of propositions.
- “Confined to the art of gaining one’s point.”
- Science “mainly concerned to tabulate and analyse dishonest stratagems, in order that in a real debate they may be at once recognised and defeated.”
Eristic:
- Of or characterised by debate or argument.
- By Aristotle, “the method by which the form of the conclusion is correct, but the premises, the materials from which it is drawn, are not true, but only appear to be true.”
Logic:
- In Greek, logizesthai, “to think over, to consider, to calculate.”
- By Schopenhauer, “the science of the laws of thought, that is, of the method of reason,” of purely a priori character.
- By Aristotle, “the theory or method of arriving at true or apodeictic conclusions.”
- “Concerned with the mere form of propositions.”
- “Assign objective truth as far as it is merely formal.”
Loquacity = The quality of talking a great deal.
Machiavellian = Characterised by cunning, scheming, and unscrupulous behaviour.
Nay = Or rather.
Peirastic = By Aristotle, “the art of getting the best of it in a dispute.”
Per fas et nefas = Through right or wrong.
Pro aris et focis = For hearth and home.
Sophistic:
- By Aristotle, “the method in which the form of the conclusion is false, although it seems correct.”
Vanity = Excessive pride in or admiration of one’s own appearance or achievements.
The Basis of All Dialectic
True premises can give only a true conclusion.
References
Hippias Major
Dialogue by Plato featuring Socrates and the sophist Hippias discussing the nature of the good.
Socrates (c. 470 – 399 BCE)
Ancient Greek philosopher renowned for his contributions to ethics and epistemology, and for his method of inquiry known as the Socratic method.
Vocabulary
Ad absurdum = “Proposition in direct contradiction with a perfectly undoubted [truth].”
Ad hominem, ex concessis = “The proposition is inconsistent with other statements or admissions of our opponent,” with truth as it appears to him for instance.
Ad rem = “The proposition is not in accordance with the nature of things,” with absolute objective truth for instance.
Contra negantem principia non est disputandum = “Against one who denies the principles, there can be no debate.”
Direct refutation:
- “Attacks the reason for the thesis,” “shows that the thesis is not true.”
- “Show that the reasons for the statement are false” (nego majorem, minorem).
- “Admit the reasons or premises, but show that the statement does not follow from them” (nego consequentiam).
Diversion:
- Accept the opponent’s proposition as true.
- Bring the proposition into connection with a proposition acknowledged to be true.
- Use the two propositions as the premises of a syllogism.
- Present a conclusion which is manifestly false.
Indirect refutation = “Attacks [the] results” of the thesis, “shows that the thesis cannot be true.”
Instance = “Refuting the general proposition by direct reference to particular cases which are included in it in the way in which it is stated, but to which it does not apply.”
Syllogism = Form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions.
I - The Extension
The more general a statement […], the more numerous [the] objections.
Give your opponent’s proposition as general a signification and as wide a sense as possible. Refute it.
Give your own proposition as restricted a sense and as narrow limits as you can.
References
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829)
French biologist known for his early theories of evolution, including the concept of acquired characteristics.
Philosophie Zoologique vol. I, p. 208
Work by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck discussing his theories of evolution and the classification of animals.
Topica bk. viii, cc. 11, 12
Book VIII, chapters 11 and 12 of Aristotle’s “Topica,” dealing with various topics of logic and argumentation.
Vocabulary
Expedient = A means of attaining an end, especially one that is convenient but possibly improper or immoral.
II - The Homonymy
It is never subtle enough to deceive.
Extend your opponent’s proposition to something which has little or nothing in common but the similarity of the word. Refute it.
References
Topica bk. i, c. 13
Book I, chapter 13 of Aristotle’s “Topica,” addressing the concept of homonymy and how to deal with ambiguous terms in arguments.
Vocabulary
Civic honor = Good name, “which may be outraged by libel and slander.”
Ex homonymia = Sophism using the homonymy trick.
Homonyms = “Two conceptions which are covered by the same word.”
Knightly honor = Point d’honneur, “which may be outraged by insult.”
Libel = A published false statement that is damaging to a person’s reputation.
Mysteries = Secrecies or obscurities, often referring to secret rites of any ancient or tribal religion.
Outrage = Flagrantly violate or infringe.
Slender = Action or crime of making a false spoken statement damaging to a person’s reputation.
Synonyms = “Two words for the same conception.”
III - The Generalisation
Take your opponent’s proposition laid down relatively as though it were general, or, at least, in some quite different sense. Refute it.
References
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 – 1831)
German philosopher known for his contributions to German idealism and his dialectical method.
Vocabulary
Comment = Praise formally or officially.
Ignoratio elenchi = A logical fallacy which consists in apparently refuting an opponent while actually disproving something not asserted.
Per negationem consequentiae = Through the negation of consequences.
Quietists = Those who adopt a calm acceptance of things as they are without attempts to resist or change them.
IV - The Mingling
A true conclusion may follow from false premises, but not vice versa.
Get the premises admitted one by one, mingling them here and there in the talk. Don’t let the conclusion be foreseen.
References
Topica bk. viii, c. 1
Book VIII, chapter 1 of Aristotle’s “Topica,” discussing the technique of mingling premises and controlling the flow of an argument.
Vocabulary
Pro-syllogisms = A syllogism that is preliminary or logically essential to another syllogism.
V - The False Premisses
Take your opponent’s false propositions and argue from the way in which he thinks to prove the truth of your proposition.
References
Topica bk. viii, c. 2
Book VIII, chapter 2 of Aristotle’s “Topica,” addressing the use of false premises in argumentation.
Vocabulary
Ex concessis = From concession, from the premises granted.
VI - The Postulates
Postulate what has to be proved either:
- Under a different name.
- By making a general assumption covering the particular point.
- By postulating one of two things that follow one from the other.
- By getting your opponent to admit every particular of a general proposition.
Vocabulary
Converse = A situation, object, or statement that is the reverse of another.
VII - The Erotematic Method
Ask many wide-reaching questions at once so as to hide what you want to get admitted. Quickly propound the argument resulting from the admissions so as to not let your opponent notice mistakes or gaps in the demonstration.
Vocabulary
Erotematic = Interrogatory, proceeding by means of questions.
Propound = Put forward for consideration by others.
VIII - The Anger
Make your opponent angry by injustice, chicanery, or insolence so that he is incapable of judging correctly.
Vocabulary
Chicanery = Use of deception or subterfuge to achieve one’s purpose.
IX - The Transposition
Put questions in a different order from that which the conclusion requires, and transpose them, so as not to let him know your aim.
X - The Converse
Ask the converse of the proposition you want your opponent to answer in the affirmative, as though you’re anxious to see it affirmed. Or give him the choice of both.
Vocabulary
Designedly = Deliberately in order to produce a specific effect.
XI - The Admitted Fact
If your opponent admits the particulars, refrain from asking him if he also admits the general truth that issues from the particulars. Introduce it as an admitted fact.
Vocabulary
Induction = The inference of a general law from particular instances.
XII - The Metaphor
If your opponent proposes an alteration, you can call it an innovation.
Choose a metaphor that is favourable to your proposition.
Vocabulary
Invidious = Likely to arouse or incur resentment or anger in others.
Petitio Principii = Fallacy in which the conclusion is taken for granted in the premises.
XIII - The Contrast
As though you were to put grey next to black, and call it white.
Give your opponent a proposition and a counter-proposition, and render the contrast as glaring as possible so that he accepts the proposition.
XIV - The Proclamation
If your opponent doesn’t answer favourably to your questions, advance the desired conclusion in a tone of triumph as though it had been proved.
If your opponent is shy or stupid and you possess a good voice, the trick may succeed.
Vocabulary
Impudence = The quality of not showing due respect to the other person.
Non Causae Ut Causae = Not the cause for the cause; the false cause fallacy.
XV - The Not Quite Palpable
If you have difficulty proving a paradoxical proposition, advance to your opponent a true proposition, the truth of which is not quite palpable. If he rejects it, you can show how absurd he is. If he accepts it, you have reason on your side for the moment.
Vocabulary
Palpable = So intense as to seem almost tangible.
XVI - The Inconsistency
Should he defend suicide, you may at once exclaim, ‘Why don’t you hang yourself?’
See if your opponent’s proposition is not inconsistent with:
- Some other proposition which he has made or admitted.
- Principles of a school or sect he has approved.
- Actions of people supporting these principles.
- Actions of people giving spurious support to these principles.
- His own actions or want of action.
Vocabulary
Claptrap = Absurd or nonsensical talk or ideas.
Spurious = False or fake.
Secundum Veritatem = According to the truth; a proof of an objective and universally valid character.
Utterance = A spoken word, statement, or vocal sound.
XVII - The Subtle Distinction
If your opponent presents a counter-proof, you can advance a subtle distinction if the matter is ambiguous or admits a double application.
XVIII - The Audience
You have the laughters on your side.
Start an invalid objection only an expert, your opponent, sees as invalid. According to your audience’s eyes, he is defeated, particularly if it places him in a ridiculous light. Your opponent would have to give a long explanation, which people are not disposed to listen to.
Vocabulary
Ad auditores = To the audience.
XIX - The Diversion
It is half-way between the argumentum ad personam […] and the argumentum ad hominem.
If you’re losing the argument, you can, in the worst case, suddenly talk about something as though it is linked with the dispute.
References
Scipio Africanus
Roman general and statesman, noted for his role in the Second Punic War.
Vocabulary
Bastinado = A form of punishment that involved caning the soles of someone’s feet.
Faute de mieux = For want of a better alternative.
Presumption = Behaviour perceived as arrogant.
Worst = Get the better of, defeat.
XXX - The Authority
There are very few who can think, but every man wants to have an opinion.
Make an appeal to authority, that your opponent respects and suited to his degree of knowledge, rather than reason. Ordinary people have respect for every kind of professional men. If necessary, you may also twist or falsify your authorities. Those who maintain that the universality of an opinion is proof assume:
- That time deprives a universal opinion of its demonstrative force.
- That distance deprives a universal opinion of its demonstrative force.
References
Pensées sur la comète, i, p. 10
Work by Pierre Bayle discussing various philosophical thoughts on comets.
Ptolemaic system
Ancient model of the universe with Earth at the center, proposed by Claudius Ptolemy.
Seneca the Younger (4 BCE – 65)
Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, and dramatist.
Siegfried
Character in Richard Wagner’s opera, often symbolizing heroism and strength.
Vocabulary
Argumentum ad verecundiam = Argument against shame, argument for authority.
Chronicler = Person who writes accounts of important or historical events.
Cogency = The quality of being logical, convincing.
Condescend = Show that one feels superior.
Credulous = Having or showing too great a readiness to believe things.
Demonstrative = Serving as conclusive evidence.
Ex hypothesi = According to the hypothesis proposed.
Pert = Impudent or cheeky.
Unruly = Disorderly and disruptive.
XXXI - The Incompetence
If you know that you don’t have a reply to your opponent’s argument, declare yourself, with a fine stroke of irony, to be an incompetent judge. You’re insinuating to bystanders that what your opponent is saying is nonsense. Thus, only use it when you’re sure that the audience sees you in a higher regard than your opponent.
References
Critique of Pure Reason
Book by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, which addresses the limitations and scope of human understanding.
Vocabulary
Eclectic = Denoting or belonging to a class of ancient philosophers who didn’t belong to any school of thought.
Nolens volens = Whether a person wants or likes something or not.
XXXII - The Categorization
Get rid of your opponent’s assertion by putting it into some odious category, even if the connection is loose. For one, you take it for granted that the assertion is at least contained in the category. Then, you underline the fact that the system referred to has been entirely refuted.
Vocabulary
Arianism = Early sect of Christianity originating with priest Arius that holds God the Father superior to God the Son.
Atheism = Disbelief in the existence of gods.
Brownianism = Brunonianism, theory of medicine developed by John Brown which regards disorders as caused by defective or excessive excitation.
Idealism = System of thought that holds that consciousness, not matter, is the ground of all being.
Manichaeism = Religious or philosophical dualism, founded by Manes.
Mysticism = Practice of religious experiences in altered states of consciousness.
Naturalism = Philosophical belief that everything arises from natural properties and causes.
Odious = Repulsive.
Pantheism = Doctrine that regards the universe as a manifestation of God.
Pelagianism = Doctrine of Pelagius defending innate human goodness and free will.
Rationalism = Theory that reason rather than experience is the foundation of certainty in knowledge.
Spinozism = Theories and views proposed by philosopher Spinoza.
Spiritualism = Doctrine that spirit exists as distinct from matter.
XXXIII - The Denial
That’s all very well in theory, but it won’t do in practice.
Admit the premises but deny the conclusion. If a theory does not work in practice, there’s a mistake in the theory.
XXXIV - The Urge
You have, as it were, reduced him to silence.
If your opponent evades your question or argument by a counter-question or indirect answer, trying to turn the subject, you have hit a weak spot. Urge the point all the more and don’t let your opponent evade it.
XXXV - The Motive
Half an ounce of will is more effective than a hundredweight of insight and intelligence.
Instead of working on your opponent’s intellect by argument, work on his will by motive. He will be won over to your opinion.
Vocabulary
Argumentum ab utili = Argument from utility.
Contemptible = Despicable.
Ignominy = Public shame or disgrace.
Sanction = To give approval for.
Siccum lumen = Dry light; the objective light of rational knowledge or thought.
XXXVI - The Bombast
A man generally supposes that there must be some meaning in words.
If your opponent is accustomed to hearing much that he does not understand and is conscious of his weakness, you deprive him of hearing, sight, and thought.
References
The Vicar of Wakefield
A novel by Oliver Goldsmith, where the character often uses high-sounding language with little meaning to impress.
Vocabulary
Bombast = High-sounding language with little meaning, used to impress people.
XXXVII - The False Proof
If your opponent is in the right but chooses a false proof, refute the proof and claim to have refuted his whole position.
Vocabulary
Contention = A heated disagreement.
Ontological = Relating to the philosophical study of being.
XXXVIII - The Personal Attack
La paix vaut encore mieux que la vérité.
Become personal as soon as your opponent has the upper hand and you’re going to come off worst. To overcome this tactic, you can quietly reply that your opponent’s answer has no bearing on the point in dispute. To prevent this tactic, don’t show your opponent that he is wrong. He would rather be insulted than proven wrong.
References
Topics
Book addressing various topics of logic and argumentation.
Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679)
English philosopher known for his work on political philosophy, especially “Leviathan.”
Themistocles (c. 524 – 459 BCE)
Athenian politician and general who played a key role in the defeat of the Persians at the Battle of Salamis.
Eurybiades
Spartan admiral who commanded the Greek fleet at the Battle of Salamis.
Vocabulary
Argumentum ad personam = Personal attack made on an opponent’s character as opposed to his arguments.
Animalism = Behaviour characteristic of animals.
Wit = The capacity for inventive thought.
Tolerably = In an acceptable manner.
On the Comparative Place of Interest and Beauty in Works of Art
To be beautiful means no more than clearly to express an idea.
References
Aristotelian unities
Principles derived from Aristotle’s Poetics that dictate unity of action, time, and place in a play.
Ludovico Ariosto (1474 – 1533)
Italian poet best known for his epic poem “Orlando Furioso.”
Dante Alighieri (1265 – 1321)
Italian poet famous for “The Divine Comedy,” an epic poem depicting his journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise.
Don Quixote
Novel by Miguel de Cervantes about the adventures of a nobleman who reads so many chivalric romances that he loses his sanity.
Egmont
Play by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe about the historical figure Count Egmont, who fought for the independence of the Netherlands.
Homer
Ancient Greek epic poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey.”
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 – 1832)
German writer and statesman, author of many works including “Faust” and “Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship.”
Hamlet
Tragedy by William Shakespeare about the Prince of Denmark who seeks revenge against his uncle, who has murdered his father.
Henry IV, Part 1
Historical play by William Shakespeare about the reign of King Henry IV of England.
Iphigenia
Tragic figure in Greek mythology, daughter of Agamemnon, often depicted in various plays and works of art.
August von Kotzebue (1761 – 1819)
German dramatist and writer known for his melodramas.
Julie or the New Heloise
Novel by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that explores the themes of love and society.
Alessandro Manzoni (1785 – 1873)
Italian poet and novelist, best known for his novel “The Betrothed.”
Oedipus Rex
Tragedy by Sophocles about Oedipus, the King of Thebes, who unwittingly kills his father and marries his mother.
Orlando Furioso
Epic poem by Ludovico Ariosto about the knight Orlando and his unrequited love for Angelica.
Friedrich Schiller (1759 – 1805)
German poet, philosopher, physician, historian, and playwright.
Shakespeare (1564 – 1616)
English playwright, poet, and actor, widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language.
The Heart of Midlothian
Novel by Sir Walter Scott about the Porteous Riots in Edinburgh.
The Merchant of Venice
Play by William Shakespeare about a merchant who must default on a large loan provided by a Jewish moneylender.
Torquato Tasso (1544 – 1595)
Italian poet best known for his epic poem “Jerusalem Delivered.”
Tristram Shandy
Novel by Laurence Sterne that parodies the genre of autobiography.
Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship
Novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe about a young man’s journey to find his place in the world.
Vocabulary
Admixture = Mixture.
Beauty = “Affair of intellect […] of the purest and simplest kind [which] consists in apprehension of ideas,” “the true end of every art,” “beyond the ranges of principle,” “lies in the perception of the idea.”
Concomitant = Naturally accompanying or associated.
Interest = “Which arouses the concern of the individual will,” “has its origin nowhere but in the course of events,” “not in itself a real end of art,” “governed by principle,” “has its sphere mainly in circumstance.”
Ply = Travel regularly over a route.
Rag = Newspaper regarded as being of low quality.
Spur = Device with a small spike for urging a horse forward.
Psychological Observations
A man shows what he is by the way in which he dies, and by the choice of his wife.
References
Nero (37 – 68 CE)
Roman Emperor known for his tyrannical rule and the Great Fire of Rome.
Porphyry (c. 234 – 305 CE)
Neoplatonist philosopher who wrote a biography of Pythagoras.
Stoicism
Philosophical school founded in Athens that teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions.
Vocabulary
Aloof = Cool and distant.
Blab = Reveal secrets by indiscreet talk.
Brood = Think deeply about something that makes one unhappy.
Despotic = Tyrannical.
Hackneyed = Overused.
Lust = Strong sexual desire.
Mimetic = Imitative.
Miser = Person who hoards wealth and spends as little money as possible.
Misanthropy = Dislike of humankind.
Morrow = The following day.
Pang = Painful emotion.
Pitiable = Arousing pity.
Thither = To or towards that place.
Throb = Pulsates steadily.
Tractable = Easy to control or influence.
Uncongenial = Not friendly or pleasant.
Vexation = The state of being annoyed.
On the Wisdom of Life: Aphorisms
He himself is the battlefield.
Names
Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626)
English philosopher and statesman, known for developing the scientific method.
Bias of Priene (c. 6th century BCE)
One of the Seven Sages of Greece, known for his wisdom and sayings.
Vocabulary
Abash = Make someone feel ashamed.
Aphorism = Expressive observation which contains a general truth.
Aright = Correctly, properly.
Awry = Away from the usual or expected course.
Bulwark = A defensive wall.
Chimaera = A fire-breathing female monster.
Embitter = Make someone feel bitter.
Entreating = Pleading.
Entreaty = Earnest or humble request.
Euphemistically = By means of mild and indirect words.
Folly = Lack of good sense.
Frank = Open, honest, and direct.
Gorgon = Each of three sisters who had snakes for hair.
Hitherto = Until now.
Hypochondriac = Person abnormally anxious about their health.
Inexorable = Impossible to stop or prevent.
Insipidity = Relating to something weak or tasteless.
Livelihood = A means of securing the necessities of life.
Mongrel = Dog of no definable type or breed.
Ostentatious = Designed to impress.
Philistine = Person from ancient southern Palestine.
Phantom = Figment of imagination.
Pomp = Ceremony and splendid display.
Prudential = Involving and showing care and forethought.
Reproach = Express to someone one’s disapproval or disappointment in their actions.
Seldom = Rarely.
Shrewd = Having or showing sharp powers of judgment.
Throb = Pulsates steadily.
Trebly = Three times as much.
Why = Used to add emphasis to a response.
Genius and Virtue
From a distance a monkey looks like a man.
Names
Arjuna
Central character in the ancient Indian epic, the Mahabharata.
Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784)
French philosopher, art critic, and writer.
Krishna
A major deity in Hinduism, the god of compassion, tenderness, and love.
Momus
The Greek god of satire and mockery.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778)
Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer.
Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677)
Dutch philosopher of Sephardi/Portuguese origin, one of the early thinkers of the Enlightenment.
Vocabulary
Allegorical = Containing a hidden meaning.
Contented = Feeling or expressing satisfaction.
Contrivance = The use of skill to create or bring about something.
Dint = Dent or hollow in a surface.
Ego = Composed of two heterogeneous parts, namely, the Will, which is metaphysical in its character, a thing in itself, and the knowing subject, which is physical and a mere phenomenon.
Genius = Kind of knowledge, namely, of ideas […] unconcerned with any principle of causation.
Gulf = Large difference or division between two groups.
Integument = Tough outer protective layer.
Jasper = Opaque reddish-brown semi-precious stone.
Many a one = Many people.
Mirth = Amusement expressed in laughter.
Noumenon = A thing as it is in itself, independent of human sense.
Peep-show = Sequence of pictures viewed through a lens or a hole.
Phantasmagorical = Dreamlike, relating to a sequence of real or imaginary images.
Pulp = Soft, wet, shapeless mass of material.
Rascal = Mischievous or cheeky person.
Respite = Short period of rest from something difficult or unpleasant.
Smother = Kill by suffocation.
Sui generis = Unique.
Turbid = Cloudy, opaque, or thick with suspended material.
Variegated = Exhibiting different colours.
Vice = Impulse of the will so violent in its demands that it affirms its own life by denying the life of others.
Virtue = Intentional restraint imposed upon [will’s] violence through a knowledge of it in its inmost being as manifested in the world.